authoritative, comprehensive and systematic

The central circadian timing system

Sick and tired: how molecular regulators of human sleep schedules and duration impact immune function

Control of arousal by the orexin neurons

Neural control of sexually dimorphic behaviors

Social and emotional neuroscience

Translating positron emission tomography studies in animals to stimulant addiction: promises and pitfalls

Orexin deficiency and narcolepsy

Neural circuits and motivational processes for hunger

Translational approach to develop novel medications on alcohol addiction: focus on neuropeptides

Optogenetics in psychiatric diseases

A synaptic trek to autism

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are diagnosed on the basis of three behavioral features namely deficits in social communication, absence or delay in language, and stereotypy. The susceptibility genes to ASD remain largely unknown, but two major pathways are emerging. Mutations in TSC1/TSC2, NF1, or PTEN activate the mTOR/PI3K pathway and lead to syndromic ASD with tuberous sclerosis, neurofibromatosis, or macrocephaly. Mutations in NLGN3/4, SHANK3, or NRXN1 alter synaptic function and lead to…

Volume 19, Issue 2, 01 April 2009, Pp 231-234
Bourgeron, T.

Beta-band oscillations-signalling the status quo?

In this review, we consider the potential functional role of beta-band oscillations, which at present is not yet well understood. We discuss evidence from recent studies on top-down mechanisms involved in cognitive processing, on the motor system and on the pathophysiology of movement disorders that suggest a unifying hypothesis: beta-band activity seems related to the maintenance of the current sensorimotor or cognitive state. We hypothesize that beta oscillations and/or coupling in the…

Volume 20, Issue 2, 01 April 2010, Pp 156-165
Engel, A.K. | Fries, P.

Development of neural stem cell in the adult brain

New neurons are continuously generated in the dentate gyrus of the mammalian hippocampus and in the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles throughout life. The origin of these new neurons is believed to be from multipotent adult neural stem cells. Aided by new methodologies, significant progress has been made in the characterization of neural stem cells and their development in the adult brain. Recent studies have also begun to reveal essential extrinsic and intrinsic molecular…

Volume 18, Issue 1, 01 February 2008, Pp 108-115
Duan, X. | Kang, E. | Liu, C.Y. | Ming, G.-l. | Song, H.

I feel how you feel but not always: the empathic brain and its modulation

The ability to share the other's feelings, known as empathy, has recently become the focus of social neuroscience studies. We review converging evidence that empathy with, for example, the pain of another person, activates part of the neural pain network of the empathizer, without first hand pain stimulation to the empathizer's body. The amplitude of empathic brain responses is modulated by the intensity of the displayed emotion, the appraisal of the situation, characteristics of the suffering…

Volume 18, Issue 2, 01 April 2008, Pp 153-158
Hein, G. | Singer, T.

Cortico-striatal representation of time in animals and humans

Interval timing in the seconds-to-minutes range is crucial to learning, memory, and decision-making. Recent findings argue for the involvement of cortico-striatal circuits that are optimized by the dopaminergic modulation of oscillatory activity and lateral connectivity at the level of cortico-striatal inputs. Striatal medium spiny neurons are proposed to detect the coincident activity of specific beat patterns of cortical oscillations, thereby permitting the discrimination of supra-second…

Volume 18, Issue 2, 01 April 2008, Pp 145-152
Meck, W.H. | Penney, T.B. | Pouthas, V.

Fear, faces, and the human amygdala

The amygdala's historical role in processing stimuli related to threat and fear is being modified to suggest a role that is broader and more abstract. Amygdala lesions impair the ability to seek out and make use of the eye region of faces, resulting in impaired fear perception. Other studies in rats and humans revive earlier proposals that the amygdala is important not only for fear perception as such, but also for detecting saliency and biological relevance. Debates about some features of this…

Volume 18, Issue 2, 01 April 2008, Pp 166-172
Adolphs, R.

The determination of projection neuron identity in the developing cerebral cortex

Here we review the mechanisms that determine projection neuron identity during cortical development. Pyramidal neurons in the mammalian cerebral cortex can be classified into two major classes: corticocortical projection neurons, which are concentrated in the upper layers of the cortex, and subcortical projection neurons, which are found in the deep layers. Early progenitor cells in the ventricular zone produce deep layer neurons that express transcription factors including Sox5, Fezf2, and…

Volume 18, Issue 1, 01 February 2008, Pp 28-35
Leone, D.P. | Srinivasan, K. | Chen, B. | Alcamo, E. | McConnell, S.K.

Local protein synthesis, actin dynamics, and LTP consolidation

Modulation of local protein synthesis in neuronal dendrites plays a key role in the production of long-term, activity-dependent changes in synapse structure and functional efficacy. Such long-term changes also require regulation of actin dynamics in dendritic spines. Recent evidence couples local protein synthesis to regulation of actin dynamics in long-term synaptic plasticity. Translation of the dendritically localized mRNA, Arc, is required for consolidation of LTP and stabilization of…

Volume 18, Issue 5, 01 October 2008, Pp 524-531
Bramham, C.R.

Dissociating explicit timing from temporal expectation with fMRI

Explicit timing is engaged whenever subjects make a deliberate estimate of discrete duration in order to compare it with a previously memorised standard. Conversely, implicit timing is engaged, even without a specific instruction to time, whenever sensorimotor information is temporally structured and can be used to predict the duration of future events. Both emergent timing (motor) and temporal expectation (perceptual) are forms of implicit timing. Recent fMRI studies demonstrate discrete…

Volume 18, Issue 2, 01 April 2008, Pp 137-144
Coull, J.T. | Nobre, A.C.

The mirror system and its role in social cognition

Experiments in monkeys have shown that coding the goal of the motor acts is a fundamental property of the cortical motor system. In area F5, goal-coding motor neurons are also activated by observing motor acts done by others (the 'classical' mirror mechanism); in area F2 and area F1, some motor neurons are activated by the mere observation of goal-directed movements of a cursor displayed on a computer screen (a 'mirror-like' mechanism). Experiments in humans and monkeys have shown that the…

Volume 18, Issue 2, 01 April 2008, Pp 179-184
Rizzolatti, G. | Fabbri-Destro, M.

Redox dysregulation, neurodevelopment, and schizophrenia

In schizophrenia, a developmental redox dysregulation constitutes one 'hub' on which converge genetic impairments of glutathione synthesis and environmental vulnerability factors generating oxidative stress. Their timing at critical periods of neurodevelopment could play a decisive role in inducing impairment of neural connectivity and synchronization as observed in schizophrenia. In experimental models, such redox dysregulation induces anomalies strikingly similar to those observed in…

Volume 19, Issue 2, 01 April 2009, Pp 220-230
Do, K.Q. | Cabungcal, J.H. | Frank, A. | Steullet, P. | Cuenod, M.

Neural computations associated with goal-directed choice

In goal-directed decision-making, animals choose between actions that are associated with different reward outcomes (e.g., foods) and with different costs (e.g., effort). Rapid advances have been made over the past few years in our understanding of the computations associated with goal-directed choices, and of how those computations are implemented in the brain. We review some important findings, with an emphasis on computational models, human fMRI, and monkey neurophysiology studies. © 2010…

Volume 20, Issue 2, 01 April 2010, Pp 262-270
Rangel, A. | Hare, T.

Critical period revisited: impact on vision

Neural circuits are shaped by experience in early postnatal life. The permanent loss of visual acuity (amblyopia) and anatomical remodeling within primary visual cortex following monocular deprivation is a classic example of critical period development from mouse to man. Recent work in rodents reveals a residual subthreshold potentiation of open eye response throughout life. Resetting excitatory-inhibitory balance or removing molecular 'brakes' on structural plasticity may unmask the potential…

Volume 18, Issue 1, 01 February 2008, Pp 101-107
Morishita, H. | Hensch, T.K.

Measured motion: searching for simplicity in spinal locomotor networks

Spinal interneurons are organized into networks that control the activity and output of the motor system. This review outlines recent progress in defining the rules that govern the assembly and function of spinal motor networks, focusing on three main areas. We first examine how subtle variations in the wiring diagrams and organization of locomotor networks in different vertebrates permits animals to adapt their motor programs to the demands of their physical environment. We discuss how the…

Volume 19, Issue 6, 01 December 2009, Pp 572-586
Grillner, S. | Jessell, T.M.

Calcium channel diversity: multiple roles of calcium channel subunits

Until recently we held the simple view that voltage-gated calcium channels consisted of an α1 subunit, usually associated with auxiliary β subunits and α2δ subunits and that skeletal muscle calcium channels were also associated with a γ subunit. However, as discussed here, there is now evidence that the auxiliary subunits may also perform other roles unrelated to voltage-gated calcium entry. In the past students were taught the simplistic view that second messenger signaling to voltage-gated…

Volume 19, Issue 3, 01 June 2009, Pp 237-244
Dolphin, A.C.

Function and regulation of local axonal translation

An increasing body of evidence indicates that local axonal translation is required for growing axons to respond appropriately to guidance cues and other stimuli. Recent studies suggest that asymmetrical synthesis of cytoskeletal proteins mediates growth cone turning and that local translation and retrograde transport of transcription factors mediate neuronal survival. Axonal translation is regulated partly by selective axonal localization of mRNAs and by translation initiation factors and…

Volume 18, Issue 1, 01 February 2008, Pp 60-68
Lin, A.C. | Holt, C.E.

Human time perception and its illusions

Why does a clock sometimes appear stopped? Is it possible to perceive the world in slow motion during a car accident? Can action and effect be reversed? Time perception is surprisingly prone to measurable distortions and illusions. The past few years have introduced remarkable progress in identifying and quantifying temporal illusions of duration, temporal order, and simultaneity. For example, perceived durations can be distorted by saccades, by an oddball in a sequence, or by stimulus…

Volume 18, Issue 2, 01 April 2008, Pp 131-136
Eagleman, D.M.

Reinforcement learning: The Good, The Bad and The Ugly

Reinforcement learning provides both qualitative and quantitative frameworks for understanding and modeling adaptive decision-making in the face of rewards and punishments. Here we review the latest dispatches from the forefront of this field, and map out some of the territories where lie monsters. © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Volume 18, Issue 2, 01 April 2008, Pp 185-196
Dayan, P. | Niv, Y.

Prefrontal control of fear: More than just extinction

Although fear research has largely focused on the amygdala, recent findings highlight cortical control of the amygdala in the service of fear regulation. In rodent models, it is becoming well established that the infralimbic (IL) prefrontal cortex plays a key role in extinction learning, and recent findings are uncovering molecular mechanisms involved in extinction-related plasticity. Furthermore, mounting evidence implicates the prelimbic (PL) prefrontal cortex in the production of fear…

Volume 20, Issue 2, 01 April 2010, Pp 231-235
Sotres-Bayon, F. | Quirk, G.J.

Dendritic spine formation and stabilization

Formation, elimination and remodeling of excitatory synapses on dendritic spines represent a continuous process that shapes the organization of synaptic networks during development. The molecular mechanisms controlling dendritic spine formation and stabilization therefore critically determine the rules of network selectivity. Recent studies have identified new molecules, such as Ephrins and Telencephalin that regulate filopodia motility and their transformation into dendritic spines.…

Volume 19, Issue 2, 01 April 2009, Pp 146-153
Yoshihara, Y. | De Roo, M. | Muller, D.

The role of the cytoskeleton during neuronal polarization

The formation of an axon and dendrites, neuronal polarization, is a prerequisite for neurons to integrate and propagate information within the brain. During the past years progress has been made toward understanding the initial stage of neuronal polarization, axon formation. First, the physiological role of some candidate regulators of neuronal polarity has been affirmed, including Sad kinases, the Rho-GTPase Cdc42, and the actin regulators Ena/VASP proteins. Second, recent studies have…

Volume 18, Issue 5, 01 October 2008, Pp 479-487
Witte, H. | Bradke, F.

3D structural imaging of the brain with photons and electrons

Recent technological developments have renewed the interest in large-scale neural circuit reconstruction. To resolve the structure of entire circuits, thousands of neurons must be reconstructed and their synapses identified. Reconstruction techniques at the light microscopic level are capable of following sparsely labeled neurites over long distances, but fail with densely labeled neuropil. Electron microscopy provides the resolution required to resolve densely stained neuropil, but is…

Volume 18, Issue 6, 01 December 2008, Pp 633-641
Helmstaedter, M. | Briggman, K.L. | Denk, W.

Neurogenesis and asymmetric cell division

The astonishing cellular diversity in the central nervous system (CNS) arises from neural progenitors which can undergo different modes of symmetric and asymmetric divisions to self-renew as well as produce differentiated neuronal and glial progeny. Drosophila CNS neural progenitor cells, neuroblasts, have been utilised as a model to stimulate the understanding of the processes of asymmetric division, generation of neuronal lineages and, more recently, stem cell biology in vertebrates. Here we…

Volume 18, Issue 1, 01 February 2008, Pp 4-11
Zhong, W. | Chia, W.

Expanding the mirror: vicarious activity for actions, emotions, and sensations

We often empathically share the states of others. The discovery of 'mirror neurons' suggested a neural mechanism for monkeys to share the actions of others. Here we expand this view by showing that mirror neurons for actions not only exist in the premotor cortex or in monkeys and that vicarious activity can also be measured for the emotions and sensations of others. Although we still need to empirically explore the function and development of these vicarious activations, we should stop thinking…

Volume 19, Issue 6, 01 December 2009, Pp 666-671
Keysers, C. | Gazzola, V.

Genetic regulation of arealization of the neocortex

Arealization of the neocortex is controlled by a regulatory hierarchy beginning with morphogens secreted from patterning centers positioned at the perimeter of the dorsal telencephalon. These morphogens act in part to establish within cortical progenitors the differential expression of transcription factors that specify their area identity, which is inherited by their neuronal progeny, providing the genetic framework for area patterning. The two patterning centers most directly implicated in…

Volume 18, Issue 1, 01 February 2008, Pp 90-100
O'Leary, D.D. | Sahara, S.

Optogenetic interrogations of the neural circuits underlying addiction

Neuroscience of affect: brain mechanisms of pleasure and displeasure

Updating dopamine reward signals

Epigenetic mechanisms of drug addiction

Oxytocin, stress and social behavior: neurogenetics of the human oxytocin system

Decision making

Network attributes for segregation and integration in the human brain

The long and short of GABAergic neurons

A neurocognitive approach to understanding the neurobiology of addiction

Decoding the genetics of speech and language